While there are plenty of historical topics U.S. citizens agree on—generally events and figures from the Civil War up to the end of the Cold War—the birth of the nation isn't one of them, according to a new report from Johns Hopkins SNF Agora Institute and a nonprofit called Millions of Conversations .
The country's founding has become one of the most polarizing eras in history, the new research finds, just as the United States is starting to celebrate its 250th anniversary this year.
Older generations in the survey believe American Independence is one of the most positive and impactful eras to shape the country, while younger generations hold more positive attitudes about contemporary social justice movements.
"Anniversaries are a time to reflect on a shared history, but America is struggling to have a common story. With that in mind, it becomes particularly salient to think about what stories will be told and who will tell them," said SNF Agora Senior Fellow Peter Pomerantsev , a lead author of the study. "How we celebrate these big historical moments can tell us a lot about who we are today."
The research is part of an effort to understand how Americans use history to mediate contemporary issues, resolve questions, and justify political ideology.
"What does it mean to belong in America today?" asks report co-author Samar Ali, a co-founder of Millions of Conversations. "This is the question most Americans are grappling with and are craving to find an answer that they can identify with."
To see how people feel about U.S. history and identify what influences those perspectives, the researchers surveyed a nationally representative sample of U.S. citizens in December 2022 and asked about their participation in politics, political ideology, personal values, media diets, and feelings on iconic U.S. historical events and figures. The researchers followed up with a quantitative survey of 300 people in January 2025, and in-depth interviews asking 12 people to reflect on findings from the initial nationwide survey.
When asked which social movements and historical figures had the most positive impact on America today, survey respondents differed along racial and ideological lines. But the most unexpected differences were between generations, the researchers said.
Older generations were drawn toward movements from early U.S. history, with 48% of the Silent Generation and 28% of Baby Boomers indicating American independence from British rule was one of the top three most impactful movements, compared to the 13% of Gen X, 14% of Millennials, and 8% of Gen Z who felt the same.
Younger generations admired contemporary social justice movements. Gen Z Americans singled out Black Lives Matter, while Gen Z, Millennials, and Gen X highlighted the LGBT rights movement. The Silent Generation and Baby Boomers did not hold either movement in high regard.
Gen Z respondents admired iconic civil rights leaders, such as Martin Luther King Jr. And Rosa Parks. Older generations generally admired presidents, including George Washington.
"We tend to think a lot about political polarization, but the differences between generations are larger than partisan gaps," Pomerantsev said. "And the divide we're seeing may not be about history. Origin stories and contemporary issues are important to identity. Layer on top of that a politicized discourse, and these movements become a kind of badge people wear."
Intensely siloed media diets may be exacerbating the generational divide. Gen Z and Millennials prefer to get their historical information from YouTube videos, while the Silent Generation and Baby Boomers prefer books and documentaries.
"How do you get the Silent Generation talking to Gen Zers when they have no forum where they come together and no common TV that they watch together? We need to focus on facilitating dialogue across transgenerational divides," Pomerantsev said.
There is common ground, however, the researchers said. Americans agree on much of history and say that they want to overcome division. For example, all generations included the Civil Rights Movement and Women's suffrage in their top three social movements they most admire.
Additionally, when the researchers ask about political ideas without using language that had been usurped by pundits and media outlets to push polarization, survey respondents agreed more than they disagreed. Nearly 40% of survey respondents said they disagree with Critical Race Theory, but nearly 60% agreed with statements that outlined the basic tenets without naming the theory.
"If you get below the surface of propaganda language, you can find your way to audiences," said Pomerantsev, who also studies propaganda and disinformation. "And there is more of a chance of people listening to one another than TV commentary would make you think."
People who participated in the in-depth interviews said they were unhappy about divisiveness and lack of community and indicated that they wanted to overcome division. They were also drawn to historical achievements that showed Americans can collaborate for a common aim.
"It's the power of paradoxical thought," Pomerantsev said. "Even though we think of history as dividing Americans now because of publicized school board fights, history could be a way to start thinking about a common future. For that, you need to both have an honest discussion about the past which pulls no punches about the injustice and traumas and how they resonate today; examine the dynamics of how Americans have managed to collaborate in the past; and then use those insights to project a just and common future."
"This is why a pathway to unity is imperative and must include steps that bring people together around common values for a shared future," Ali emphasized. "One of those key steps should inspire reconciliation with how our combined experiences with the truth impacts how we exist today as a pluralistic society."
