Throughout human history, many cultures have developed belief systems that tied nature to the supernatural, fostering practices that preserved and sustained their environments. Forest spirits, river gods, or deities were often seen as guardians of natural domains, and exploiting nature carried the risk of retaliation from these beings. Today, with mounting concerns over the overexploitation of the world's natural resources, can bringing back some of these supernatural beliefs help deter such behaviors?
The underlying idea is that fear of retribution from a supernatural entity might deter people more effectively than modern penalties, which require costly state enforcement. To explore this possibility, researchers from Doshisha University and collaborating institutions turned to evolutionary game theory. This framework examines how behaviors and beliefs spread or fade within a population depending on the conditions and benefits they provide.
The study, published in Humanities and Social Sciences Communications on October 15, 2025, was led by Dr. Shota Shibasaki from the Faculty of Culture and Information Science at Doshisha University, Japan. It also included Dr. Yo Nakawake from Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Dr. Wakaba Tateishi from Hokkaido Musashi Women's University, Dr. Shuhei Fujii from Kokugakuin University, and Dr. Ryosuke Nakadai from Yokohama National University and Research Institute for Humanity and Nature.
Dr. Shibasaki's own cultural background inspired him to undertake research in this direction. As Dr. Shibasaki explains, "I am interested in how human culture, including supernatural beliefs, affects the natural environment and vice versa. Growing up in Japan, I am familiar with folklore that portrayed nature as sacred and spiritually guarded. These stories left a lasting impression on me and sparked my curiosity about their societal functions. As a researcher, I hoped to bridge the gap between the abstract mathematical model and my cultural experiences, ultimately contributing to a more holistic understanding of human–nature interactions."
To investigate, the researchers developed a mathematical model that combines three closely linked elements: the degree to which people believe in supernatural punishment, the intensity with which they exploit natural resources, and the actual availability of those resources in the environment. These elements constantly influence one another. When people overexploit resources, the environment becomes depleted. As resources decline, the benefits of further exploitation diminish. Meanwhile, if people believe in supernatural punishment, they are less likely to overexploit in the first place, which allows resources to recover.
Analysis conducted using the model showed that supernatural punishments are effective under two conditions. First, the fear of supernatural punishment must be strong enough to outweigh the short-term gains of overusing resources, encouraging restraint. Second, the punishment should not be so extreme that people are unwilling to adopt the belief at all. When both conditions are met, the belief can spread through a community and act as an enforcement system, without requiring human policing.
But could such beliefs really take hold in modern societies? The researchers suggest that it is possible because human psychology naturally supports the spread of religious ideas. Stories of forest spirits or river gods tend to be memorable and widely shared. Additionally, people frequently imitate the beliefs of prestigious figures, so if respected leaders or religious authorities endorse such ideas, others may follow.
This has practical implications for conservation efforts. In communities where folklore and cultural traditions remain strong, stories of supernatural punishment could be used to encourage environmental protection. Policymakers might also work with existing traditions where formal laws or enforcement are limited. Overall, the study suggests that sustainability efforts in modern society can also be shaped by culture, belief, and human psychology.
"Ultimately, this work contributes to a broader understanding of how human societies can have more harmonious relationships with nature—not just through regulation or technology but also through supernatural belief and culture," concludes Dr. Shibasaki.
About Assistant Professor Shota Shibasaki from Doshisha University, Japan
Shota Shibasaki is an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Culture and Information Science, Doshisha University. He earned his Ph.D. in Life Sciences from the University of Lausanne in 2022. His research explores the complex dynamics of ecology and evolution, focusing on how cooperation, species interactions, and cultural evolution shape biological and social systems. Using mathematical models, data analysis, and experiments, he has studied cooperation in microbes, biodiversity in changing environments, and the interplay between culture and nature.
Funding information
The study was supported by Research Institute for Humanity and Nature (RIHN: a constituent member of NIHU) Project No. RIHN14210183 to Ryosuke Nakadai, and partially by the Foundation for the Fusion of Science and Technology to Shota Shibasaki.
