Researchers at HSE University analysed over 4,000 examples of Russian spoken by bilinguals for whom Russian is a second language, collected from seven regions of Russia. They found that most non-standard numeral constructions are influenced not only by the speakers' native languages but also by how frequently these expressions occur in everyday speech. For example, common phrases like 'two hours' or 'five kilometres' almost always match the standard literary form, while less familiar expressions—especially those involving the numbers numerals two to four or collective forms like dvoe and troe (used for referring to people)—often differ from the norm. The study has been published in International Journal of Bilingualism .
Russian numerals can be confusing not only for foreigners, but also for native speakers and bilinguals—those fluent in two or more languages. Some studies suggest that the grammar of a speaker's first language—such as Nanai or Ulchi—can influence their acquisition of Russian. Other researchers, however, argue that the influence of the native language is just one of several factors.
Researchers at the HSE Linguistic Convergence Laboratory analysed how bilinguals from different regions of Russia use numerals in spoken Russian. The team processed seven collections of interviews recorded in Daghestan, Bashkortostan, Chuvashia, Mari El, Karelia, and other regions. The sample included spontaneous speech from over 180 native speakers of 21 different languages. Each collection featured recordings of natural conversations in which participants responded to the researchers' questions and shared stories about themselves, their families, and the village life. Out of more than 7,000 numeral-containing phrases, the researchers selected approximately 4,000 for analysis, excluding constructions with ordinal numerals and oblique cases.
The results showed that non-standard realizations of numeral constructions in Russian are influenced not only by the native language but also by other factors such as the education level, age, and—most importantly—how frequently the expression is used in speech. The more familiar a phrase—such as 'two hours' or 'five kilometres'—the less likely it is to appear in a non-standard form. This supports the hypothesis that linguistic constructions are acquired not through formal rules but through regular usage.
Chiara Naccarato
'It cannot be said that bilinguals simply project the grammar of their native language onto Russian when they use it. Even if a native speaker grew up in an environment where numerals function differently than in Russian, it doesn't mean they will consistently copy the structures of their native language when speaking Russian,' explains Chiara Naccarato, Research Fellow at the Linguistic Convergence Laboratory, Associate Professor at the HSE Faculty of Humanities , and co-author of the paper.
Numerals from two to four, along with collective forms like dvoe and troe, proved particularly challenging for participants and were used in non-standard forms much more frequently.
The frequency of non-standard numeral constructions in the speech of bilinguals from different regions.
These findings are relevant not only to linguists but also to educators, as they highlight which areas of grammar require more attention. In the future, the authors plan to investigate other areas where the native language may—or may not—influence the Russian language acquisition.
The study was conducted with support from HSE University's Basic Research Programme within the framework of the Centres of Excellence project.
