Weather information is so commonplace that we do not give it a second thought. But how does this information get to your phone?
Midnight approaches in the United Kingdom. In London, the gears of Big Ben grind their way to the hands of the clock pointing directly upwards. Unbeknownst to the last tourists making their way back to their accommodations, the arrival of midnight in this location, or more precisely in Greenwich, is the signal for a flurry of activity around the world, activity that underpins something that we all take for granted: the predictability of the weather.
Out in the street, a tourist glances at her phone, the weather app tells her that tomorrow will be fine, with a chance of showers in the afternoon. Perfect weather for morning activities but it might be prudent to pack an umbrella. This kind of weather information is so commonplace that we do not give it a second thought. But how does this information get to her phone? The data comes from somewhere, but where?
As the clock chimes midnight in London, it is a sunny morning in Giles, in central Australia. The weather observer on duty presses the button that releases a weather balloon that will take measurements of temperature and humidity as it ascends more than 20 kilometres into the atmosphere. As it is taken by the wind, the onboard GPS tracker allows its movement to be tracked in real time, giving a precise measurement of the wind speed and direction during its ascent. A small radio transmitter sends the observations back to the ground station where they are recorded in a data file.
After more than an hour ascending into the atmosphere, the balloon bursts and the small instrument package safely falls to Earth, arrested by a parachute. The data file, now complete and containing observations of temperature, humidity and wind every two minutes - an atmospheric profile - is dispatched via the Internet to the Bureau of Meteorology 's central systems. From there, it is immediately placed on the WMO Information System (WIS), where it is accessible to every meteorological service with a WIS connection.
Global frameworks
The data arrives at the European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), where it is checked for errors and then placed in the real-time observations database. This alone is quite remarkable: an observation taken in remote Australia is available to a modelling centre on the other side of the globe, in near-real time, with a trusted level of data quality and in a standard format that can be readily understood and decoded. This same process occurs at other numerical weather prediction centres in Australia, Canada, China, France, Germany, Japan, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America. These centres, designated World Meteorological Centres under the framework of the WMO Integrated Processing and Prediction System (WIPPS), are at the heart of weather forecasts all around the globe.
What is even more remarkable is that, at the same time as the balloon was launched at Giles, similar launches took place at over a thousand locations around the globe, on every continent including Antarctica, and on many small islands dotted across the oceans. Surface observations - temperature, humidity, pressure, rainfall and wind - from automatic weather stations and from human observers, are also simultaneously recorded and transmitted. Drifting buoys and ships provide measurements at the surface of the ocean, and aircraft, during take-off and landing, provide measurements of wind and temperature. All the data from these observations also end up in the data repositories of World Meteorological Centres.
Complementing these in situ observations, a global fleet of satellites, in both low Earth orbit (500-800 km) and geostationary orbit (32,000 km) provide continuous, real-time observation of a range of meteorological and climate variables. The Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites harmonizes orbits, sensors, data formats and data downlinks to best meet the needs of the international community. As full member of this group, WMO has a pivotal and unique role in representing the needs of the broader meteorological data user community.
It is this global coordination and free exchange of observational data, under the banner of WMO Integrated Global Observing System (WIGOS), together with the protocols and technology for realtime transmission though WIS, that makes weather prediction possible. Without this framework, global coverage would be patchy at best. Global models require global data. To take this a step further, weather forecasting for more than a day or two ahead requires data covering the whole planet. The dynamic and seemingly chaotic nature of weather requires global models to deliver the forecasts we all depend on.
The dynamic and seemingly chaotic nature of weather requires global models to deliver the forecasts we all depend on.
Global benefits
Weather forecasts are often termed a non-excludable public good: once it's broadcast, it's difficult to prevent anyone from accessing it, and one person's use doesn't diminish its availability for others. As a result, they are available to everyone, all the time, free of charge.
Today, forecasts are ubiquitous on radio, television, print media and, increasingly, on mobile devices. So much so that they can easily be taken for granted. But it is important to remember that, regardless of where you are on the Earth, which country you are in, whether you are on the ground, in the air or on the open ocean, the forecasts you are using are based on information from one of the World Meteorological Centres. And, that every weather, climate or water-related forecast you receive is reliant on the free and open exchange of observational data orchestrated by WMO.
WMO, as the specialized United Nations agency with responsibility for weather, climate and hydrology, can therefore make a unique and unusual claim. The systems that it puts in place benefit every person on Earth who has direct or indirect access weather forecasts and warnings. Perhaps that is not every person on Earth, as there are some who have no access to weather information at all, but it can be said that the overwhelming majority of humans derive benefit from the activities of WMO.
The benefits are distributed to wealthy and poor countries alike, regardless of alliances or geopolitical forces. The frameworks of WMO provide the foundation of all weather services, around the globe. And conversely, the dependency on the data exchange brokered by WMO is also there for all countries - the nature of weather and climate, and the data requirements of global models, mean that no country can "go it alone". A country that would, for example, attempt to run models based only on its national data, would be extremely limited in terms of forecast accuracy and lead time.
Returning to the late-night tourist and her phone, most users of the weather app on their mobile device would have little understanding of the immense global infrastructure that, collectively, delivered the forecast to their device. To put things in perspective, a conservative estimate of the cost of global weather infrastructure, per year, is around USD $10 billion. Comparing this to other global science infrastructure, such as the International Space Station at around $3 billion per year or the CERN's Large Hadron Collider at $1.3 billion per year, it is apparent that, taken as a whole, the global weather forecasting infrastructure is probably the largest science endeavour on the planet. And while this might seem expensive, it is outweighed multiple times by the economic benefit of the services provided, which was estimated in a 2015 WMO report at $160 billion per year, with an average return on investment (ROI) of 1:10 in high-risk regions.
Regional and national benefits
While this is a significant benefit for many countries, in particular Least Developed Countries and Small Island Developing States, the benefits of WMO far exceed the basic foundation of global data exchange and global numerical weather prediction products. There are a wide range of supporting structures and systems that provide supporting capability, capacity development and oversight for WMO Members.
The Severe Weather Forecasting Programme (SWFP) strengthens the capacity in developing countries to deliver improved forecasts and warnings of severe weather to save lives and livelihoods and protect property and infrastructure. SWFP currently involves around 98 developing countries in nine sub-regions of the world including Southern Africa, Eastern Africa, West Africa, Central Africa, South-East Asia, South Asia, Central Asia, Eastern Caribbean , Central America, Oceania and South Pacific, with support from development partners and donors. SWFP builds on data and products made available through WMO's cascading forecasting process, building additional detail and context on data provided from global producing centres.
For example, for the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA), WMO membership brings significant operational benefits, particularly through access to advanced forecasting and data systems. PAGASA uses the SWFP platform as a key tool in its weather forecasting processes, benefiting from multi-model outputs that improve accuracy and aid decision-making. These systems are integral to daily operations at PAGASA's regional forecasting centres.
WMO-sponsored tools like OSCAR , WMO's metadata repository, and the WIGOS Data Quality Monitoring System (WDQMS) enable improved data validation, metadata management, and monitoring of observational network performance. This helps PAGASA to align its practices with international standards and to deliver high-quality meteorological and climate data. PAGASA is also actively implementing the latest implementation of WIS, WIS 2.0 , with technical assistance from Indonesia and Japan, ensuring seamless data exchange via both primary and backup systems.
Beyond operations, WMO plays a key role in capacity building and innovation. PAGASA staff regularly participate in WMO-sponsored training programs, including workshops on data systems, radar use, and satellite meteorology. WMO also supports strategic transitions such as the shift to impact-based forecasting (IBF), currently being piloted in Metro Manila and Metro Cebu. Long-term initiatives like data rescue, supported by WMO since 2017, ensure the preservation of historical climate records and support future-ready services.
In Chile, WMO systems have also directly contributed to reducing loss of life and economic damage from extreme weather, climate and water-related events. Agroclimatic warning systems now provide timely alerts for frost, heatwaves, hail and heavy rainfall, while real-time monitoring portals support rapid response to wildfire risks and other hazards. By encouraging and facilitating the exchange of meteorological data across institutions through WIGOS - especially within the agricultural sector - WMO frameworks have helped end users plan more effectively and make informed decisions that protect both people and livelihoods.
Through access to WMO's global network of expertise, and frameworks like WIGOS and WIS, the Chilean Meteorological Service has significantly improved the accuracy and timeliness of its data and forecasts. This has enabled the development of advanced early warning systems and climate services that support sectors ranging from agriculture to emergency management, particularly in response to prolonged droughts and extreme weather events.
In South Africa, WMO membership has played a vital role in strengthening the delivery of meteorological and climate services by promoting international collaboration, standardizing practices, and supporting sustainable development. Frameworks such as WIGOS and WIS provide access to essential global data and systems, while also offering capacity development and technical assistance - benefits that are particularly valuable to less-resourced countries. This integration with the global weather infrastructure ensures that the South African Weather Service can more effectively carry out the responsibilities under its mandate.
With WMO's support, South Africa has been effective in reducing disaster risks and improving public safety. The promotion of the Common Alerting Protocol (CAP) has enabled warnings to be disseminated widely across multiple platforms, reaching more people, especially in vulnerable communities. Programmes such as the SWFP and the Southern Africa Region Flash Flood Guidance System (SARFFGS) have significantly enhanced the country's ability to deliver accurate, timely warnings for extreme weather events, including flash floods - the most destructive and sudden form of flooding.
In Cambodia, WMO membership has been transformative in enhancing the country's meteorological and climate resilience, particularly in a region highly exposed to seasonal flooding and tropical cyclones. Access to global data and forecasts through frameworks such as WIGOS, WIS, and SWFP has strengthened the country's ability to deliver accurate, timely and actionable warnings. During Tropical Cyclone Soulik in 2024, WMO's coordination enabled Cambodia to issue early evacuation alerts and forecasts that significantly reduced casualties compared to previous events. SWFP provided critical guidance, while WIGOS and WIS facilitated the rapid exchange of observations and warnings. These systems, paired with targeted capacity building programs and real-time collaboration with regional centres, have helped modernize Cambodia's disaster risk reduction efforts.
Beyond emergency response, WMO's support has also advanced long-term resilience in sectors such as agriculture. In the Tonle Sap region, for example, WMO's Global Framework for Climate Services (GFCS) has helped farmers adapt to increasingly unpredictable seasonal patterns. By tailoring forecasts to local needs, providing training, and ensuring the delivery of clear, accessible climate information, Cambodian authorities have empowered communities to make better-informed decisions - such as shifting planting schedules or choosing resilient crop varieties. Collaboration with partners, like SERVIR-Mekong and the Mekong River Commission , has further strengthened flood forecasting tools, with alerts now disseminated via SMS and radio to vulnerable populations. This integrated approach has improved food security, reduced economic losses and deepened public trust in national weather services.
In Kenya, WMO membership has provided crucial support for building and maintaining standardized meteorological infrastructure, including observing systems, data exchange platforms, and operational procedures. Through initiatives like WIGOS, WIS, WIPPS, and SWFP, WMO has helped establish the foundational pillars of the country's early warning systems. It has also facilitated access to advanced forecasting models and expertise from global centres such as ECMWF and National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), enabling Kenya to produce reliable early warnings and benefit from harmonized training and capacity building efforts.
This support has directly improved the quality and reach of severe weather forecasts, contributing to a measurable reduction in loss of life. Kenya's disaster risk authorities, aviation and maritime sectors, and local communities now receive timely, impact-based forecasts through coordinated dissemination channels like CAP and SWFP web portals. A notable example is the response to El Niño-induced heavy rainfall events, where early advisories - enabled by SWFP products - helped prevent fatalities and protect livelihoods and infrastructure across multiple regions.
A vital role
As these examples strongly demonstrate, WMO holds a vital role in providing the underlying framework for advancing global meteorological, hydrological and climate services. From improving the accuracy and timeliness of severe weather warnings to strengthening resilience in climate-vulnerable sectors like agriculture and disaster risk management, WMO frameworks and initiatives consistently translate science into action.
Through systems like WIGOS, WIS, WIPPS, and SWFP, WMO Member States and Territories - regardless of economic status - gain access to critical data, technologies and capacity building that enable them to better serve and protect their populations. As the effects of climate change intensify extremes and the demand for reliable early warning systems grows, WMO leadership in fostering international cooperation, standardization and innovation will become ever more important in the 75 years ahead to the turn of the century. Its enduring commitment to leaving no country behind ensures that the benefits of meteorological science are shared widely and equitably around the globe.
Acknowledgement
The author would like to acknowledge the input of and participation of the following people interviewed for the article:
- Phillipines ( Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration(PAGASA)): Rex Abdon Jr., Rolymer Canillo, Lorenzo Moron
- Kenya (Kenya Meteorological Department) David Koros
- South Africa (South African Weather Service (SAWS)) Ezekiel Sebeyo
- Cambodia (Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology (MOWRAM)) Seth Vannareth
- Chile (National Meteorological Service of Chile) Gastón Torres
Also many thanks to Ata Hussain (WMO) who facilitated contact with the interviewees.
