New OECD data shows export restrictions for critical raw materials becoming increasingly widespread as demand surges, driven by the green and digital transitions and rising concerns over economic security.
The OECD Inventory of Export Restrictions on Industrial Raw Materials offers key insights for policymakers and stakeholders to help identify less restrictive ways to meet both the security of supply needs of importing countries and the development goals of resource-rich nations. It provides annually updated data on the scope, type, and evolution of export restrictions across 65 industrial commodities and 82 producing countries.
The 2025 edition, covering developments through the end of 2023, shows that export restrictions on industrial raw materials increased more than fivefold from 2009. This trend accelerated markedly in 2023 when over 500 new raw mineral products were affected by at least one export restriction. The growth rate of new export restrictions was more than double that of 2022 and nearly triple that of 2021 (see figure below).
"Increasing export restrictions on critical raw materials can increase prices and the risk of supply chain disruptions, undermining global growth, the expansion of renewable energy and digitalisation " OECD Secretary-General Mathias Cormann said. "The OECD provides a unique evidence base to track these restrictions and identify less restrictive solutions that support both security of supply and the development goals of resource-rich countries."
This trend reflects broader shifts in the global landscape, with heightened geopolitical tensions and growing strategic competition. While Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022 triggered a spike in raw material and energy prices, governments have since become more assertive in managing critical resources, with export restrictions playing a growing role. In 2023, nearly 94% of new export restrictions were introduced by just seven countries (China, Viet Nam, Burundi, Russia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe, and Lao People's Democratic Republic) - a concentration that underscores the significant influence of a small number of players on global access to raw materials.
Waste and scrap materials remain the most frequently restricted category, often due to environmental concerns and increasing interest in circular supply chains. However, export restrictions on ores and minerals, particularly upstream inputs in critical supply chains, are also rising sharply. Between 2021 and 2023, 14% of global trade in non-waste and scrap industrial raw materials faced at least one export restriction. The impact was especially pronounced for cobalt and rare earth elements, with 67% and 46% of their respective trade affected.
The types of trade measures used are evolving. While export taxes and licensing requirements remain the most common, recent years have seen a sharp increase in quantitative restrictions such as export prohibitions and quotas. Since 2019, export bans have become increasingly prominent, reflecting more assertive policies and efforts to retain value domestically.
