Nocturnal insects may use both the Earth's magnetic field and visual cues to guide their migratory flight behaviours, according to recent findings.
The research, published in eLife as a Reviewed Preprint, with the revised version appearing today, is described by the editors as fundamental. They say it presents compelling evidence on how geomagnetic and visual cues are integrated in a nocturnally migrating insect – the fall armyworm – with findings that will be of interest to researchers studying animal migration and navigation.
A number of large nocturnal moth species undertake long-distance, multigenerational migrations in the Northern Hemisphere. Every spring across North America and Eurasia, billions of noctuid moths move northwards to summer breeding grounds, with their descendants returning to lower-latitude wintering areas in the subsequent autumn.
"Some of the most abundant species involved in these migrations are the world's most destructive agricultural pests, which make it of paramount importance to fully understand their migratory patterns so they can potentially be controlled," says co-first author Yi-Bo Ma, a master student at the State Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Forestry Biosecurity, Nanjing Agricultural University, China. "Although many of these species are thought to use Earth's magnetic field, particularly at nighttime when navigation is more challenging, the sensory basis of this navigation has yet to be investigated."
"The one exception to this lack of knowledge is the Bogong moth of Australia, which uses a magnetic compass integrated with a stellar compass and visual cues to guide its migration," adds co-first author Gui-Jun Wan, Associate Professor at the State Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Forestry Biosecurity, Nanjing Agricultural University. "This species is unique, however, because a single generation migrates to and from a restricted geographic location in southeast Australia, unlike other species that move between broad latitudinal zones. As these other species don't require the same navigational precision, presumably they have simpler sensory capabilities than Bogong moths."
The team set out to investigate this question using the fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda), one of the world's most invasive crop pests, as a model for understanding general noctuid moth migration and navigation capabilities. They measured the flight responses of tethered moths within a virtual flight simulator, using a modified experimental approach to the one used in the Bogong moth studies*. The simulator consisted of a PVC cylinder that incorporated a visual cue on the side: a black triangle rising above a black horizon. When tethered within the simulator, moths were restrained but free to rotate and take up any orientation they chose. The simulator was placed within a 3D Helmholtz coil system, used to produce a region of uniform magnetic field, which the researchers could control with a computer.
"Although this setup is highly reductionist to natural flight conditions, it provided a controlled framework for isolating the contributions of geomagnetic and visual cues as a step toward understanding how they operate in more realistic settings," Yi-Bo explains.
The team recorded moth flight headings across five consecutive five-minute phases of tethered flight under different experimental conditions. These phases involved changing the alignment of the visual cue and the horizontal magnetic field component. The five-minute phases enabled the team to detect changes in the moths' flight orientation as the alignment of magnetic and visual cues was altered.
The first two experiments involved field-captured moths tested during spring and autumn migration periods. In phase one, the visual cue was aligned with the expected seasonal magnetic direction, and the moths showed significant group orientation towards the visual cue in both seasons. In phase two, the horizontal component of the geomagnetic field was rotated 180 degrees, creating a conflict between the visual cue direction and the expected magnetic orientation. Despite this shift, moths continued to show significant group orientation toward the visual cue during the 5-minute period, indicating that this cue was dominant compared to the magnetic compass.
However, during phase three, the moths lost this group-level orientation, indicating that they had become confused over time due to the conflicting nature of the cues. "This delayed response was consistent with similar results from the Bogong moth studies, and suggests that moths require time to process conflicts in cues. Additionally, the absence of visual cues led to a significant loss in the moths' flight stability, which likely explains the disruption in orientation," says Gui-Jun.
Next, in phase four, the visual cue was arranged in the same way as in phase one, but rotated by 180 degrees. Under this condition, the moths again exhibited group-level orientation towards the congruent cues. In phase five, all cues were returned to the phase-one configuration, and the moths again showed the same significant orientation direction.
Together, these results demonstrate that fall armyworms require both geomagnetic and visual cues for accurate migratory orientation – with visual cues being indispensable for magnetic orientation. The findings were similar in laboratory-raised moths, which the team reared under simulated autumn light settings (photoperiods) and tested in the same way as the field-captured moths.
"Our findings emphasise the importance of integrating multiple cues for successful orientation, and pave the way for future research to explore whether other long-distance migratory moth species share similar magnetic-visual integration mechanisms," concludes senior author Gao Hu, Professor at the State Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Forestry Biosecurity, Nanjing Agricultural University, and the Key Laboratory of Surveillance and Management of Invasive Alien Species, Guiyang University, China. "Gaining a better understanding of their migratory behaviours and the sensory basis for them could help inform future strategies for controlling some of these invasive pest species."
* 'The Earth's Magnetic Field and Visual Landmarks Steer Migratory Flight Behavior in the Nocturnal Australian Bogong Moth'. 2018. Current Biology – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.05.030 ; and 'Bogong moths use a stellar compass for long-distance navigation at night'. 2025. Nature – https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09135-3 .
##
