Researchers at New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) have found that a largely overlooked class of "forever chemicals" is widespread in New Jersey drinking water and commercially available bottled beverages, raising new questions about how these persistent contaminants are monitored and potentially introduced into everyday products.
In what researchers describe as the first statewide U.S. monitoring study of ultra-short-chain per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), the NJIT team detected trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) in more than 91% of tap-water samples collected across all 21 New Jersey counties and nearly 80% of bottled beverages tested. The study also revealed substantially higher concentrations in certain sports drinks and electrolyte waters than in plain bottled water, suggesting that ingredients or manufacturing processes may contribute to contamination beyond the original water source.
The findings, published in Environmental Science & Technology Letters , highlight a significant gap in conventional PFAS monitoring. While chemicals such as PFOA and PFOS have received widespread regulatory attention by the U.S Environmental Protection Agency, ultra-short-chain PFAS have largely escaped routine testing because their small molecular size and chemical properties make them difficult to detect using established methods.
"Most people have heard of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) because they have been the focus of regulations and water testing for years. TFA is different," said Siwei Gu, a postdoctoral researcher in NJIT's Emerging Contaminants Research Laboratory and lead author of the study. "It is much smaller in molecular size, highly soluble in water, and does not bind strongly to many filter materials that work well for capturing traditional PFAS."
To investigate these often-overlooked compounds, researchers analyzed 113 samples, including 70 tap-water samples from across New Jersey and 43 commercially available bottled beverages. Using a specialized laboratory method, they screened for five ultra-short-chain PFAS that can be difficult to measure through conventional testing procedures.
TFA was by far the most frequently detected compound, appearing in 64 of 70 tap-water samples and 34 of 43 bottled beverages. Although concentrations varied geographically, at least one tap-water sample from every New Jersey county contained detectable TFA. The study found a median concentration of 352 nanograms per liter among tap-water samples with detectable TFA, with higher county averages observed in several northern and northeastern counties, such as Essex, Hudson and Bergen.
"We anticipated finding trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) in drinking water, as previous studies in Europe had reported its widespread occurrence," said Arjun Venkatesan, associate professor of civil and environmental engineering at NJIT and director of the Emerging Contaminants Research Laboratory. "However, what surprised us was how frequently it was detected, occurring in 64 of the 70 tap water samples collected across New Jersey and 34 of the 43 bottled beverages analyzed."
Bottled beverages reveal unexpected differences
One of the study's most notable findings involved the considerable differences between plain bottled water and beverages containing added ingredients.
Among the 43 bottled beverages tested, the 12 formulated beverages had an average TFA concentration approximately 52 times higher than the 31 bottled waters. Concentrations in some electrolyte waters and sports drinks were particularly elevated, with the highest measurement reaching 94,100 nanograms per liter. By comparison, the highest TFA concentration detected in New Jersey tap water was 1,360 nanograms per liter.
Researchers have not determined why some formulated beverages contained substantially higher concentrations. Unlike plain bottled water, these products may include sweeteners, flavorings, electrolytes and other additives that could introduce additional sources of TFA.
"One possible explanation is that ingredients used in these beverages or certain manufacturing processes may be contributing to the elevated TFA concentrations," Gu said. "However, we did not analyze individual ingredients or investigate the manufacturing processes, so we cannot definitively identify the sources of TFA in these products."
TFA can enter the environment through multiple pathways, including the breakdown of certain fluorinated refrigerants, pesticides and other chemicals. It can subsequently be transported through precipitation into surface water and drinking-water sources. Its persistence and high mobility also make it challenging to remove through conventional water treatment.
The researchers emphasize that the study represents an initial snapshot of contamination rather than a comprehensive assessment of New Jersey's drinking-water systems. Additional sampling will be needed to determine how concentrations vary over time and to identify the sources responsible for geographic differences.
What the findings mean for water safety
Although the findings demonstrate widespread exposure potential, researchers caution that detecting TFA does not necessarily establish an immediate health risk. Scientific understanding of the compound's long-term effects in humans remains limited, even as some toxicological studies have raised concerns about potential developmental and reproductive effects.
"I think it is important for consumers to understand that detecting a chemical in drinking water or beverages does not necessarily mean there is an immediate health risk," Venkatesan said. "The potential health implications depend on the concentration, frequency of exposure, and how much of the chemical is consumed over time."
The study also points to challenges facing water utilities and regulators. Conventional PFAS treatment technologies, including granular activated carbon and ion-exchange resins, are generally less effective at capturing TFA than many longer-chain PFAS compounds. Specialized testing methods are also needed to reliably measure these smaller contaminants.
Researchers say expanding monitoring efforts will be essential to understanding the extent of contamination and determining whether additional treatment measures are warranted.
At NJIT, the Emerging Contaminants Research Laboratory is already investigating technologies designed to improve PFAS removal, including pretreatment methods that enhance the ability of activated carbon to capture difficult-to-remove PFAS.
The team plans to expand monitoring beyond New Jersey, investigate potential sources of TFA and examine how concentrations vary across drinking-water supplies and treatment systems. Ultimately, the researchers hope to connect improved detection with more effective, affordable technologies that utilities can use to address emerging contaminants.
The study, " Occurrence of Ultra-Short Chain PFASs in Bottled Beverages and New Jersey Tap Water ," was authored by Siwei Gu, Santhoshi Chitthaluri, Ebenezer Etsiwah, Bishnu Pandey and Arjun K. Venkatesan. The research was supported in part by a faculty start-up grant from NJIT.
