A new study has suggested that the transformation of Twitter into X under Elon Musk marks the rise of a new, illiberal regime of governing social media platforms, which can be controlled by one person and used to push their own political agenda.
Alongside researchers from the WZB Berlin Social Science Center and the Weizenbaum Institute, Dr João C. Magalhães of The University of Manchester studied over 1,500 events to track how the platform has changed since Musk acquired it.
Focusing on the period between early 2022 and early 2025, their study - published in the journal New Media & Society - argues that the platform shifted away from traditional content moderation and towards what they call 'platform illiberalism' - a system where rules about speech are changed inside the platform while helping political groups the owner supports.
"Social media platforms in the West have always had huge control over what people see and say online," said Dr Magalhães. "They were never fully democratic, but they rarely supported one political side, and almost never authoritarian groups. What's new with X is how much power one person has, and how Musk used it to support the far right in countries including the US, the UK and Germany."
The study says Twitter's change into X unfolded in three stages. First, the old moderation system was simplified, with many advisory groups and safety teams removed. Next, big decisions became highly centralised, with major powers like content promotion and rules closely linked to Musk. Finally, he used these powers to create a 'propaganda machine' for political groups he supports and weaken his critics. Dr Magalhães says this is similar to "what happens in countries taken over by authoritarian leaders".
The researchers say these changes both limit and boost speech in new ways. "Musk and his critics often call X a platform with free speech," said Dr Magalhães. "Our study shows it's more complicated than that. Content moderation wasn't removed - it was changed and used differently."
The study warns that these changes could affect more than just X. Social media affects elections, political movements and public discussion worldwide - so how these platforms are run is now a concern for researchers, politicians and the general public. This trend shows how powerful tech owners can shape online spaces for their own goals, as has also been seen with Meta platforms in the US since 2025.
"Understanding these changes is important because social media rules now influence how societies talk about politics, share information, and handle disagreements, which has big effects on democracy and public debate."
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444826142488
