In recent years, governments worldwide have expressed concern over rising inequality, eroding social cohesion, and declining trust in institutions. This study, led by Professor Ken'ichi Ikeda from the Faculty of Social Studies, Doshisha University, Japan, in collaboration with Associate Professor Naoki Akaeda from the Faculty of Sociology, Kansai University, Japan, contributes to that debate. They demonstrate that subjective well-being (SWB) is deeply tied to both a country's overall risk climate and the configuration of happiness inequality, where society resembles a "weak pyramid" or an "inverted pyramid." Understanding this relationship, the authors argue, is essential for interpreting what happiness inequality means and how social structures influence well-being under pressure. The study was published online on October 23, 2025, in the journal Applied Research in Quality of Life .
Prof. Ikeda, also the Co-Principal Investigator of the World Values Survey (WVS) Japan team, explains the motivation behind the research. "Happiness is not only about individual emotion but also about the social landscape one inhabits. Under conditions of risk, the structure of well-being in a society determines how strongly people feel the pressure of uncertainty," he said.
The researchers analyzed Waves 6 and 7 of the WVS from 32 countries to study two forms of comparative disparity:
- Upward disparity (Iu) – more citizens cluster at the low end of well-being (a "weak pyramid").
- Downward disparity (Id) – more people cluster at the higher end (a "thick middle class" or "inverted pyramid").
Their findings show that societies with strong upward disparity suffer sharper declines in SWB when perceived societal risk rises. Individuals cannot choose the societal distribution of happiness they live in. Therefore, when instability increases, people in "weak pyramid" societies are more vulnerable to downward well-being pressure. Conversely, societies with a strong middle class, reflected in higher downward disparity, are more resilient.
Prof. Ikeda notes the broader relevance: "Many governments emphasize building a robust middle class. Our study provides quantitative, cross-national evidence that such a middle class helps sustain citizens' well-being even when society faces high levels of perceived risk," he said.
Beyond highlighting how risk and happiness inequality interact, the study offers long-term implications. Over the next 5–10 years, governments could apply this framework to monitor SWB distributions, design risk-mitigating institutions, and assess policies aimed at stabilizing well-being during periods of social stress. The researchers argue that maintaining a thick middle class is not just economically beneficial but psychologically protective.
Prof. Ikeda's interest in this topic stems from earlier research showing that Japanese perceptions of national risk are higher than objective indicators suggest. His 2022 book, Contemporary Japanese Politics and Anxiety Over Governance (from Routledge), laid the groundwork for theorizing perceived societal risk. This study advances that line of inquiry by linking risk perception to the distributional patterns of SWB across countries.
About Professor Ken'ichi Ikeda from Doshisha University, Japan
Professor Ken'ichi Ikeda is a faculty member in Social Studies at Doshisha University. He specializes in public opinion research, political psychology, communication studies, and social psychology. He earned his Ph.D. in Social Psychology from The University of Tokyo. Before joining Doshisha University, he was a professor and earlier an associate professor at The University of Tokyo. His work focuses on how political attitudes, social risks, and communication environments influence citizens' perceptions and behavior. He has published extensively in prestigious journals and contributed to advancing the understanding of political communication and social cognition in contemporary societies.
Funding information
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP22H00052.
