Experts from around the world have worked together to expand a unique resource that helps countries, militaries, and academics understand how international law applies to cyber activities.
The new material explores issues such as the peaceful settlement of cyber disputes, accountability for crimes against humanity committed through cyber means, and data collection in occupied territory.
By combining new scenarios with updated incidents and national positions, the annual update ensures that the Cyber Law Toolkit remains a trusted reference for those examining the legal challenges raised by cyber operations.
The Toolkit offers a unique combination of resources, including detailed hypothetical scenarios, a repository of real-world cyber incidents, and a comprehensive collection of national positions on international law in cyberspace.
The Toolkit now features 35 scenarios, each blending a description of a cyber incident with in-depth legal analysis.
The collection of real-world incidents has also expanded to nearly 80 entries, capturing the latest developments from around the globe.
The Toolkit includes a database of the views of 35 States as well as the positions of the African Union and European Union. This allows countries to examine how others interpret and apply international law in the cyber context and has been acknowledged in several official positions and multilateral fora.
The project remains a collaborative effort, developed by an editorial team led by Professor Kubo Mačák (University of Exeter), Tomáš Minárik (Czech National Cyber and Information Security Agency), and Otakar Horák (NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence). Contributions undergo rigorous internal and external peer review, drawing on the expertise of dozens of international lawyers from diverse professional and geographic backgrounds.
Professor Mačák said: "Each year, the Toolkit evolves to reflect how international law is being tested and shaped by cyber activities. The 2025 update ensures that policymakers, legal advisers, and scholars have access to up-to-date, reliable guidance on these rapidly developing issues."
Earlier this year, the Cyber Law Toolkit received the prestigious Jus Gentium Research Award of the American Society of International Law, recognising its contributions to providing and enhancing legal information resources in international law. With this accolade, the Toolkit joined an illustrious list of past recipients including the United Nations Digital Library, the World Legal Information Institute, and the ICC Legal Tools Database.
The Toolkit is supported by six partner institutions: the Czech National Cyber and Information Security Agency, the International Committee of the Red Cross, the NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence, the University of Exeter, the U.S. Naval War College, and Wuhan University.
