Machine learning analysis of job adverts in Switzerland found how employer expectations are evolving across occupations
A new study from the Global Institute for Women's Leadership at King's Business School and the University of Zurich has traced a two-decade shift in how employers in Switzerland describe the 'ideal worker', revealing early signs that flexibility, gender equity and work-life balance are beginning to reshape occupational cultures.
The researchers developed a novel method using machine learning to analyse job advertisements across 47 occupations between 2001 and 2023 to track cultural expectations that shape who is seen as a 'good' worker, and how those expectations are changing.
Machine learning refers to a type of artificial intelligence that enables computers to detect patterns and extract meaning from large volumes of text. In this study, it was used to scan job adverts for phrases and terms that reflect employer expectations - such as references to work-life balance or long hours - providing a window into how occupational norms are shifting.
Traditionally, the 'ideal worker' has been defined by masculine-coded traits such as full-time availability, long hours and prioritising work above all else. The study follows up on research showing that these expectations have contributed to gender inequality, burnout and limited access to flexible working arrangements.
But this image may be starting to shift. The researchers found early indicators of an emerging 'inclusive worker norm', one that understands that workers have diverse commitments, and recognises that people have responsibilities in their private lives and family. Furthermore, there are signs that gender equality in the labour market is increasing over time.
Progress towards inclusive norms has been most prominent among healthcare and administrative professionals. In managerial and finance occupations, expectations of long hours and work devotion have eased, bringing them closer to other occupations, although they still maintain the strongest emphasis on these demands. Occupations with stronger ideal worker norms tend to show wider gender and part-time pay gaps, reinforcing existing inequalities.
However, the study also cautions that job adverts may not fully reflect workplace realities. Shifts in language can be symbolic or aspirational and may not always translate into inclusive day-to-day practices. The researchers also highlight that gains from more inclusive norms are not evenly distributed - with outcomes varying across gender, class and other social groups.
While rooted in the Swiss context - known for its high wages, long working hours, flexible labour market and gender-conservative norms - the findings may speak to broader workplace shifts in other high-income countries, particularly post-pandemic.
There is still a prevailing belief that supporting work-life balance is just a perk for workers - but it's much more than that. Understanding that workers have diverse demands in their life, and supporting workers to meet those demands rather than forcing them to solely devote to their jobs is not only good for workers, but good for productivity and for companies' bottom line. Our findings show that the employers are slowly changing their attitudes around workers, and who they consider 'ideal worker' is starting to change, and this has real implications for pay, wellbeing and inclusion. It shows the value of more tailored workplace policies, and for organisations to reflect on how their job adverts and cultural signals might reinforce outdated expectations.
Professor Heejung Chung, Director of the King's Global Institute for Women's Leadership, King's Business School
The way job adverts are written is starting to shift. Mentions of work-life balance and family support have increased substantially since 2001. These changes signal that it is acceptable for workers to devote their lives not only to work, reflecting a cultural shift towards greater openness to diverse working time arrangements. This shift is visible in the fact that more men and women prefer part-time work when such changes occur within their occupations. While not all workers can afford to work part-time, diminishing expectations of extreme work devotion may benefit everyone by encouraging a more balanced distribution of both paid and unpaid labour.
Jan Müller, University of Zurich
You can read the full paper by visiting the journal, Gender, Work & Organisation webpage.
