FORT COLLINS, Colo., March 23, 2026 — A new study forthcoming in American Antiquity, the flagship journal of North American archaeology published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Society for American Archaeology, presents evidence that the earliest known dice in human history were made and used by Native American hunter-gatherers on the western Great Plains more than 12,000 years ago at the end of the last Ice Age, long before the earliest known dice from Bronze Age societies in the Old World.
The research conducted by Colorado State University Ph.D. student Robert J. Madden indicates that dice, games of chance, and gambling have been a persistent feature of Native American culture for at least the last 12,000 years, with the earliest examples appearing at Late Pleistocene Folsom-period archaeological sites in Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico. These artifacts predate the earliest known Old World dice by more than 6,000 years.
"Historians have traditionally treated dice and probability as Old World innovations," Madden said. "What the archaeological record shows is that ancient Native American groups were deliberately making objects designed to produce random outcomes, and using those outcomes in structured games, thousands of years earlier than previously recognized."
What these Ice Age dice looked like
The earliest examples identified in the study come from Folsom sites dating to roughly 12,800–12,200 years ago. Unlike modern cubic dice, these were two-sided dice known as "binary lots," carefully crafted, small pieces of bone that were flat or slightly rounded, often oval or rectangular in shape, sized to be held in the hand and tossed in groups onto a playing surface.
The two faces of these binary lots were distinguished by applied markings, surface treatments, coloration, or other visible modifications, much like heads or tails on a coin, with one face designated as the "counting" side. When thrown, they reliably landed with one side or the other facing upward, producing a binary (two-outcome) result. Sets of these dice were cast together, and scores were determined by how many landed with the counting face up.
"They're simple, elegant tools," Madden said. "But they're also unmistakably purposeful. These are not casual byproducts of bone working. They were made to generate random outcomes."
How the research was conducted
Rather than relying on subjective resemblance or guesswork, the study introduces a new attribute-based morphological test – a systematic checklist of measurable physical features – for identifying North American dice archaeologically. The test was derived from a comparative analysis of 293 sets of historic Native American dice documented across the continent by ethnographer Stewart Culin in his 1907 Bureau of American Ethnology monograph, Games of the North American Indians.
The study then applies this test systematically to the published archaeological record, essentially re-examining artifacts long labeled as possible "gaming pieces" or otherwise overlooked to determine whether they meet the new objective criteria for dice. In most cases, the evidence had been in the archaeological record for decades, but without a clear standard for identifying dice, it had never been analyzed as part of a larger pattern. Using this approach, Madden identified over 600 hundred diagnostic and probable dice from sites spanning every major period of North American prehistory, from the Late Pleistocene through and after the period of European contact.
"In most cases, these objects had already been excavated and published," Madden said. "What was missing wasn't the evidence, it was a clear, continent-wide standard for recognizing what we were looking at."
The earliest examples were examined directly in museum collections at the Smithsonian Institution, the University of Wyoming Archaeological Repository, and the Denver Museum of Nature and Science.
Rewriting the deep history of probability
Historians of mathematics widely regard dice games as humanity's earliest structured engagement with randomness, an intellectual precursor to probability theory, statistics, and later scientific thinking. Until now, the origins of these practices were thought to lie exclusively in Old World complex societies beginning around 5,500 years ago.
This study suggests a much deeper and broader history.
"These findings don't claim that Ice Age hunter-gatherers were doing formal probability theory," Madden said. "But they were intentionally creating, observing, and relying on random outcomes in repeatable, rule-based ways that leveraged probabilistic regularities, such as the law of large numbers. That matters for how we understand the global history of probabilistic thinking."
A 12,000-year cultural tradition with living descendants
The research also documents the remarkable breadth, as well as the persistence, of Native American dice games. From Paleoindian times through the Archaic and Late Prehistoric periods, dice appear at 57 archaeological sites across a 12-state region associated with a variety of different cultures and subsistence strategies.
According to Madden, this breadth of use and endurance reflects their social importance. "Games of chance and gambling created neutral, rule-governed spaces for ancient Native Americans," he said. "They allowed people from different groups to interact, exchange goods and information, form alliances, and manage uncertainty. In that sense, they functioned as powerful social technologies."
About the Study
The article, "Probability in the Pleistocene: Origins and Antiquity of Native American Dice, Games of Chance, and Gambling," will appear in American Antiquity, published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Society for American Archaeology.
