Researchers from the National University of Singapore (NUS) College of Design and Engineering (CDE), led by Professor Heng Chye Kiang ( NUS Department of Architecture ), have developed a computational framework for reconstructing the genealogy of vernacular architecture. Applied to frontage images of 1,276 historic shophouses in Singapore's Chinatown, the framework generated a detailed architectural 'family network' that reveals how different styles evolved and interacted, providing new insights to support future conservation strategies.
Moving beyond manual mapping towards a data-driven toolkit
Singapore's shophouses are a cherished feature of its urban landscape, considered vernacular architecture, with designs that evolved organically, using locally available materials, adaptations to climate and influenced by different cultural components rather than relying on formal blueprints.
However, current methods for studying such buildings rely heavily on manual observation and subjective interpretation. This approach is often limited, resulting in broad classifications that can overlook the complex, cross-cultural influences that shaped these structures and, in turn, complicate efforts to preserve them effectively.
The new framework addresses these limitations by transforming architectural interpretation into a systematic and reproducible process, while retaining expert knowledge at every stage. It begins with the formulation of a research hypothesis and proceeds through three interconnected phases: data collection, classification and interpretation.
For the Singapore case study, the researchers assembled georeferenced frontage images from Google Street View and on-site photography. Architectural expertise was first used to develop a glossary of shophouse façade elements and determine which features were meaningful for analysing stylistic change.
The team then trained an AI-based object-detection model to recognise 14 architectural elements across the façade images. Each shophouse could consequently be represented by a structured profile indicating which elements were present or absent. Buildings with recurring combinations of features were grouped into façade types.
In the interpretation phase, the researchers applied mathematical methods associated with phylogenetic analysis, approaches more commonly used to study relationships among biological species, languages or archaeological artefacts. This step maps the complex relationships among different façade types, ultimately constructing a justifiable, data-supported genealogy of the shophouses. This transforms the raw data into a coherent narrative that visualises how different styles evolved, diverged, and influenced one another over time.
Beyond a simple chronological understanding of evolution
The study produced a detailed phylogenetic network that organises shophouse styles into nine distinct clusters, moving beyond the current chronological classifications that were adopted in the 1990s.
The network reveals simultaneous evidence of cultural evolution (styles changing over time) and diffusion (styles spreading across different locations), with styles from different ethnic groups existing concurrently, leading to parallel architectural developments rather than a simple merging of forms. This offers a more nuanced perspective on Singapore's multi-ethnic character.
"By recasting an architectural question as a mathematical one, we uncovered deeper synchronic threads of development that were previously invisible," said Prof Heng. "This not only helps us describe the forms more accurately but also reveals the underlying forces of cultural competition and evolution. It's a powerful new lens for viewing our own history."
This research establishes a new paradigm for computational vernacular studies, demonstrating a powerful synergy between architectural expertise and computer science. The quantitative genealogy it produces promises to enhance architectural conservation measures by providing a more objective basis for deciding what to preserve and how to preserve it, ensuring that the rich, complex story of Singapore's built heritage is understood and maintained for generations to come.
"Our framework is designed to augment, not replace, the architectural expert," stated Dr Xue Xuan, first author of the paper, formerly a Research Fellow in the NUS Department of Architecture and now a Professor at the School of Architecture and Urban Planning, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, "We focused on how these tools can guide a scholar's intuition to yield new insights. In this sense, expert knowledge does not disappear; it is simply redistributed."
