Forget gears and motors. The next generation of robots may run on living muscle. Scientists are now fusing biological tissue with engineered structures to create "biohybrid robots"—machines that flex, contract, and move using the same power source we do: cells.
The potential could be striking. Imagine tiny robots swimming through your bloodstream to deliver drugs, engineered tissues that help heal damaged organs, or living systems that model diseases more faithfully than any computer. But so far, most of these robots are fragile lab prototypes, more science experiment than practical tool.
A new review in the International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing maps out how to get there. Led by Dr. Su Ryon Shin of Harvard Medical School, the study highlights how advanced fabrication methods—such as 3D bioprinting, electrospinning, microfluidics, and self-assembly—are redefining what's possible for muscle-powered robotics.
"Fabrication isn't just about building the parts. It's the key to performance," Dr. Shin explains. "The way we grow and guide muscle cells determines whether these robots can move, adapt, and last."
Muscles Meet Machines
Researchers are working with two kinds of tissue. Skeletal muscle, which contracts strongly when stimulated, offers the ability to generate powerful movement; while cardiac muscle, which beats rhythmically on its own, provides continuous and coordinated motion.
Each offers unique advantages but only if fabrication techniques are tailored to their needs. 3D bioprinting, electrospinning, microfluidics, and self-assembly all give scientists new ways to position, align, and nurture cells so they integrate with engineered frameworks. Done right, the muscle contracts in unison, transforming a patch of living tissue into a controllable robotic actuator.
The Fragility Problem
Right now, most biohybrid robots don't last long. They're tiny, delicate, and only survive under carefully managed conditions. Scaling them up or getting them to function in the messy and unpredictable world remains a huge challenge.
To fix that, researchers are experimenting with three strategies: multi-material printing to add strength and complexity; perfusable scaffolds that keep cells alive by feeding them nutrients; and modular designs that make robots tougher and more adaptable.
All these advances could eventually allow biohybrid machines to live longer, work harder, and move into medicine or even industry.
The Big Picture
The implications extend far beyond robotics. If these technical hurdles can be overcome, biohybrid systems could inaugurate a new class of machines that blur the distinction between living and engineered. A robot that flexes like a muscle can adapt, heal, and interact with the body in ways metal and plastic never could.
Shin and her colleagues believe the field is on the cusp of this transition. "The next generation of biohybrid robots will not only achieve precise actuation and adaptability," she says. "They'll overcome barriers of scale and integration. They'll actively support human health."
If fabrication technologies keep advancing, the robots of tomorrow may not clank, whir, or buzz. They may beat, contract, and grow—just like us.
International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing (IJEM, IF: 21.3) is dedicated to publishing the best advanced manufacturing research with extreme dimensions to address both the fundamental scientific challenges and significant engineering needs.
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