Earnings vary widely across music, film and live performance, while time spent on essential activities such as rehearsals, travel, preparation and post-production is not always consistently recorded or remunerated, according to a new report by the International Labour Organization (ILO). The study also examines how employment arrangements, production economics and technological change interact.
The study Trends in remuneration and working time: Recorded media and live performance looks at recorded music, film, television, live concerts, theatre and festivals. It draws on research, labour market data and consultations with employers' and workers' organizations, and highlights how authors, performers, technicians and production teams may spend days preparing before an audience even hears the first note of a concert or sees the first frame of a film.
More than a performance: Multiple jobs and work behind the scenes
Remuneration can include salaries and engagement fees, as well as royalties and residuals linked to subsequent uses of works and performances. Many professionals combine several jobs and income sources, such as live performances, recordings, teaching and technical work. This makes total earnings difficult to assess, particularly when work is intermittent.
Across the countries analyzed, ILO labour market data show substantial differences in median monthly earnings. The report cautions, however, that these figures are indicative: surveys may not fully capture income from multiple jobs or certain payments linked to the subsequent use of works, such as royalties and residuals.
Furthermore, work does not begin when the cameras roll or the curtain rises. Rehearsals, travel, equipment set-up and post-production may be paid separately, included in an agreed fee or not consistently recorded and recognized. Irregular schedules, long working hours and limited opportunities for adequate rest and recovery can also affect occupational safety and health and work-life balance.
The report also looks at gender differences. In the European Union, women's gross hourly earnings in cultural employment were, on average, 13.5 per cent lower than men's in 2022.
Sharing risks and rewards in a changing industry
Creative workers face varying levels of remuneration and financial uncertainty, while independent producers, small venues and micro, small and medium-sized enterprises operating in the sector face the risk of not recovering their full costs and upfront investments, particularly given uncertain demand. These factors shape how financial risks and rewards are shared across the industry.
Fixed fees and buyouts can provide certainty at the outset, while royalties and residuals can allow contributors, such as authors and performers, to benefit from subsequent commercial uses. Each arrangement involves trade-offs, making clear contracts and transparent payment terms important.
And while streaming and digital distribution have opened international markets for artists, producers and smaller enterprises, the study finds that the resulting chains of rights and payments can make it difficult to trace how works are used and how revenues are distributed.
AI brings new possibilities - and new questions
Artificial intelligence (AI) can assist with editing, subtitling, scheduling and sound production. It may save time, but it can also change skill requirements and create additional supervision and quality-control tasks. The use of existing works, voices or performances in AI-enabled systems also raises questions about consent, attribution, transparency and remuneration.
The report reflects different stakeholder perspectives. Workers' organizations emphasize the importance of consent, transparency and compensation, whereas employers' and industry organizations underline the need for practical rules that support innovation, investment and diverse production models.
"Audiences see the final film or performance but not necessarily the work and investment that goes into it," said Dagmar Walter, Director of the ILO's Sectoral Policies Branch. "Adequate remuneration, well-organized working time and sustainable creative enterprises all belong in the same discussion. Social dialogue can be of enormous value in helping employers and workers to come up with practical solutions as the industry is transformed by technology."
Finding solutions through social dialogue
The study identifies several priorities for action, including better data on earnings and working time, clearer contracts, more predictable schedules and skills development. Social dialogue among governments, employers and workers, including through collective bargaining, can help address these priorities and identify practical solutions that reflect the diverse economic realities and working conditions across the sector.
