The way Latino Americans' identity is represented on demographic forms can undermine their fundamental sense of belonging in the U.S., says new research by a University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign psychology professor who studies how people navigate exclusion and discrimination.
Across four experiments that surveyed more than 1,300 Latino participants before and after the 2020 and 2024 presidential elections, the study considered how questions of race, ethnicity and citizenship on a mock-U.S. Census Bureau form affected Latino Americans' identity and perceptions of inclusion.
The researchers found that the widely used "two-question" format - which separates Hispanic/Latino origin from race and considers it as an ethnicity - consistently produced feelings of exclusion. The proposed addition of a citizenship question also amplified concerns about stereotypes related to immigration and documentation, said Brenda Straka, a professor of psychology at Illinois and lead author of the study.
"One of the big takeaways is the subtle and structural nature of the exclusion, which can come down to the way we categorize Latino or Latina identity," Straka said. "For Latino Americans, the way these categories are currently structured, being either separated from or included alongside other groups on a demographic form, can make them feel like outsiders in their own country. It can communicate who belongs and who is valued."
The study, which is published in the journal Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, was co-written by Sarah E. Gaither and Miguel Martinez, both of Duke University.
Since 1980, the U.S. Census has asked two separate questions: one about race, and the other about whether the respondent is of "Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin." This approach treats Latino heritage as an ethnicity rather than a race, separating it from categories such as white, Black or Asian.
Using a mock-census form, the researchers manipulated the framing of Latino identity via a two-item format (Latino listed separately) versus a single-item format (all categories listed together), as well as the inclusion of a citizenship question.
Overall, Latino Americans who completed a two-item format versus the single-item format experienced greater social identity threat, institutional exclusion, more negative external perceptions of Latino Americans and lower Latino and American identification, according to the research.
Respondents exposed to the two-item format also perceived Latinos as a less cohesive group, less prototypical of American society and less valued overall. These perceptions, in turn, weakened identification with both Latino and American identities, the paper said.
"We found that specific wording regarding race or ethnicity was not important," Straka said. "Instead, it was this formatting that structurally separates Latino identity from other groups that can make Latino people feel like they are outsiders. That perception has real consequences for how people see themselves and their communities."
The researchers also investigated the potential impact of a proposed citizenship question on the census, initially raised during the first Trump administration. While courts ultimately blocked its inclusion in 2020, the debate sparked questions about its psychological effects.
The study found that seeing or answering the citizenship question increased Latino respondents' sense of fear that others would assume they were undocumented or did not belong in the U.S.
"This question raises concerns around stereotypes related to immigration status and erodes a sense of internal pride that sustains healthy identification," Straka said.
The four experiments also revealed that reactions to the citizenship question were strongly shaped by context.
During the 2020 presidential election cycle, when debates over immigration and the U.S. census were prominent, the citizenship question triggered strong threats to belonging and meaningful existence. By 2024, those effects had largely faded, though stereotype concerns persisted, according to the paper.
"The findings highlight the importance of political context," Straka said. "The saliency of these threats may ebb and flow with public debate, media attention and policy proposals."
The study has implications for the 2030 U.S. census, as the U.S. Census Bureau prepares to update its approach for the 2030 count, Straka noted.
In 2024, federal agencies approved a new combined question format that asks: "What is your race or ethnicity?" The change merges race and ethnicity into a single item and explicitly includes "Hispanic/Latino" as a selectable option.
"Our results suggest that inclusive practices - like a single combined question - can reduce experiences of exclusion and better reflect how Latino people understand their identity," Straka said. "When institutions ask people to check a box, they are also making a statement about who counts and who belongs. Inclusive demographic practices are essential for ensuring that Latinos feel recognized, valued and fully part of American society."
The research was funded by the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues and the Charles Lafitte Foundation.
