Female farm managers are hidden in plain sight in ancient Roman texts, mentioned in laws, literature and grave inscriptions across five centuries. Modern historians have generally assumed they were housekeepers, in charge of domestic tasks and household meals, and segregated from the productive business of the farm.
My new paper , published in the Journal of Roman Archaeology, challenges this assumption.
In fact, there is evidence to suggest that many Roman female farm managers supervised wine production and other processes vital to farming and profits.
A false lead
A farming manual written by the Roman writer Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella in the 1st century CE is a window to the roles of the female manager.
An upper class landowner himself, Columella lists the responsibilities of farm managers, who were probably enslaved. The male manager was termed the vilicus, and the female manager the vilica, terms derived from their roles at the "villa".
But many historians reading this text have been side-tracked by a false lead: Columella begins his section on the vilica with a long quote from the Greek philosopher Xenophon , who wrote in Athens more than four centuries earlier.
The "natural" role of women, according to Xenophon, was to work indoors. Therefore in his discussion, the ideal upper-class married woman is depicted staying inside her town house to supervise the domestic work of the slaves.
The Greek writer is not discussing farm workers. In fact, Columella says four times that these ideas are not his own, but those of Xenophon, writing long ago.
Columella lists a completely different set of responsibilities for the vilica on a Roman farm: most importantly, the making of wine and olive oil, which were highly valuable commodities - the backbone of landowners' profits.
In his description of the vilica's duties, Columella includes the extraction of the juice from grapes during the harvest; adding flavourings and preservatives such as salt, wormwood, fennel or boiled grape-juice; and overseeing successful fermentation into wine.
According to Columella, the vilica also managed the processing of other farm products to make them long-lasting and profitable, such as turning inedible olives into olive oil for sale.
From archaeology we know that production of wine or oil, using huge machines in substantial buildings, could reach 50,000 to 100,000 litres per year, or even more. The vilica was therefore responsible for overseeing large-scale work essential to the operation of the estate.
Calling on the gods
Correct sacrifices to the gods were seen as vital to the success of the farm. Archaeology has uncovered altars for offerings in Roman wine-making buildings.
Wine-making in the Roman world was a precarious process, due to uncontrolled temperatures, bacteria or oxygenation. Wine could easily go mouldy or turn into vinegar.
A striking element of Columella's account is that he includes carrying out offerings to avert such a disaster in his instructions for the female farm manager.
Looking for more clues
Other texts contain barely more than a mention of the vilica, revealing only her presence.
But we can still put together some clues.
Legal writings on inheritance, quoting the 1st century BCE jurist Trebatius, include her in the instrumentum fundi - whatever (including enslaved personnel) is required for productive work, gathering and preserving produce of the estate.
Another aristocratic landowner and writer, Cato the Elder , living two centuries before Columella, lists both the female and the male farm manager as essential staff for a vineyard or olive farm.
He devotes only one small section to outlining the female farm manager's tasks, but a close look shows these are not predominantly domestic. Cato includes keeping poultry and processing of seasonal farm products. Although he does include supervision of cleaning, this could refer to maintenance of work spaces such as stables and wine making buildings, an integral part of estate management - and also listed by Columella among the vilica's duties.
Cato also gives the vilica the responsibility for making sacrifices to the gods for the success of the farm. She must regularly offer garlands at the altar "for abundance", he writes.
A Roman mosaic showing estate work in different seasons depicts a scene of sacrifices for abundant crops to the god Jupiter (in his Celtic form as a sky and weather god). A woman is shown holding an offering of garlands, just as Cato instructs. Beside her are a jug for wine offerings and a male figure.
Perhaps this mosaic shows the vilica and vilicus, both essential to the success of annual harvests. While such images of female figures are rare, one fragmentary wall painting from Rome shows a female overseeing wine-making workers, just as Columella describes.
This combined body of evidence suggests we should expand outdated understandings of the roles that Roman women played in farm production, the dominant sector of ancient economies.
No vilica has left us an account of her work in her own words. But by paying careful attention to the evidence, we can hear an echo of her voice.
Tamara Lewit does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
