Jihadists and extremists on the far right may have something in common. Researchers have developed a model consisting of social and psychological factors that explain how violent extremism arises.
What makes a person willing to use violence?
The complex psychological and social path that leads people to violent extremism has been mapped out in a new model devised by Associate Professor Milan Obaidi from the University of Copenhagen in collaboration with colleagues from Uppsala University, Aarhus University, and the University of Stuttgart.
"Since September 11, 2001, there has been a great deal of focus on the topic of 'extremism'. But much of what has been said and written is not based on empirical evidence. People have philosophized about extremism, but compared to other areas of psychological research, there is a real lack of data, experiments, and interviews with people who have been convicted of violent extremism," says Milan Obaidi from the Department of Psychology.
He has devoted his research career to violent extremism and, together with colleagues from other universities, has developed a model for extremism. The model differs from previous literature in the field by including several facets that together can explain how one individual ends up committing violent extremism while another person in the same environment does not.
"In our model, we try to combine psychology, sociology, and political science. And we argue that they can explain extremism better together than separately. Each field has something unique to contribute, and we do not believe that any of them can stand alone in explaining violent extremism," says Milan Obaidi.
A complex relationship
Milan Obaidi explains that previous work on extremist violence has been based on a simplified analysis that drew a straight line between an unfavourable social environment and violent tendencies. For example, social inequality has been examined and found to lead to a greater willingness to resort to violence.
But a social environment characterized by inequality is not sufficient to explain violent extremism, says Milan Obaidi. The physical and social environment can not sufficiently explain why violence erupts. The individual has his or her own perception of their environment. And this perception can vary greatly from person to person in the same environment.
"Inequality can lead to great dissatisfaction, protests, and violence. But not always. And not for everyone. It is not a sufficient explanation for violent extremism," he says.
Thus, it is not only the physical and social environment that matters.
"The perception of inequality is very important. Some people think, 'Yes, I'm being treated a little unfairly, but I can easily cope,' while others become very angry about exactly the same circumstances," says Milan Obaidi.
"That is why we believe it is important to look at the actual circumstances as well asthe social-psychological perception of those circumstances. Together, they can better explain what leads to violence," he adds.
Personality and extremism
In addition to the conditions and the individual's perception of their circumstances, Milan Obaidi points to a third ingredient that explains violent extremism. It's about who we are.
There are some personality traits that, under certain circumstances, lead to a higher risk of violent tendencies.
"In the past, there was a clear perception in the field that there was no connection between personality and extremism. We disagree. We have conducted studies with both Islamist jihadists and individuals on the far right, and in both cases we find a clear connection between personality traits and extremism," says Milan Obaidi.
Denmark and many other countries have deradicalization or anti-radicalization programs designed to help young people who have gone astray.
Milan Obaidi hopes that his model can lead to a better understanding of the complex factors that lead to violent extremism. Among other things, this could mean that deradicalization programs become more effective.
"Many of the programs cannot demonstrate that they have an effect. And they may also have been based a little too much on gut feelings about extremism. But when we know what leads to extremism, we can base our interventions on that knowledge and work with people in a completely different way," says Milan Obaidi.
However, it is not easy to establish a formula for a violent extremist.
"For example, there is a personality trait that we call 'openness to experience'. If you look at first-generation immigrants and this one character trait, the more open you are, the less prone you are to violence. But in the third generation, it's the opposite. The more open you are, the more prone you are to violence. So you can't just say that openness points in one direction or the other. It depends on the context, so it's very complex," says Milan Obaidi.
People with high openness are more curious and often seek more information by reading newspapers, listening to debate programs, and the like.They are therefore more exposed to discrimination, inequality, and oppression directed at Muslim minorities.
"And this increased exposure can make them feel more discriminated against, and when this feeling of discrimination becomes prominent, it can in some cases lead to extreme attitudes," says Milan Obaidi.
The three components of Milan Obaidi's model are the physical and social environment (objective situation), the individual's own perception of this environment (subjective appraisals), and the individual's psychological characteristics (individual characteristics). The complex interaction of these factors can explain violent extremism.
A new discourse
At times, violent extremism is referred to differently in the public sphere, depending on who is perpetrating the violence.
"There is a narrative that right-wing violence, such as Anders Breivik's terrorist attacks in 2011, is rooted in mental illness, while Islamist violent extremism is culturally conditioned and perpetrated by religious fanatics," says Milan Obaidi.
He believes that the new model can form the basis for a more nuanced debate.
"Our model shows that it is not always about culture or religion, but about the individual. There are actually just some people, in different cultures and religions, who have personality traits that, under the 'right' circumstances, can lead to violent extremism," says Milan Obaidi.
He hopes that the model can lead to a better understanding of the complex relationships that lead to violent extremism.
"It is simply too simplistic to look at just one factor. We show that ideology matters, social conditions matter, and personality matters. And we can see that there are some common traits among people who are willing to use violence, regardless of whether they are on the extreme right or Islamists," says Milan Obaidi.
The study is entitled 'Towards an Integrated Psychological Model of Violent Extremism' and is published in the European Review of Social Psychology.
