Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that can affect attention, activity levels, and impulse control, with symptoms often beginning in childhood and sometimes continuing into adulthood. Although the exact causes of ADHD are not fully understood, changes in the brain's dopamine system have long been linked to the condition. Dopamine is a chemical messenger that helps brain cells communicate and plays an important role in movement, motivation, and behavior.
While dopamine-related changes have been associated with ADHD, it remains unclear how the brain cells that respond to dopamine are maintained and how their disruption may contribute to ADHD-related behaviors. This is particularly relevant to dopamine D2 receptor (D2R)-expressing cells, which are found in the striatum, a brain region involved in movement and behavioral control. Understanding what helps these cells develop and function normally could provide new insights into the biological processes involved in ADHD.
Against this backdrop, a research team from Japan, led by Assistant Professor Min-Jue Xie from the Division of Development of Mental Functions, Research Centre for Child Mental Development, University of Fukui, Japan, set out to investigate the role of N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor (NSF) in these dopamine-related brain cells. NSF regulates membrane fusion, helping brain cells release chemical messengers and move proteins within their membranes. "The motivation for this study came from previous findings suggesting that NSF may be involved in neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric disorders. NSF was known to interact with D2R; however, the role of this interaction in vivo remained unclear. Because ADHD is thought to involve reduced striatal dopaminergic function and D2R dysfunction, we hypothesized that NSF may be important for maintaining D2R-expressing neurons and dopaminergic function. This led us to initiate the present study," explains Dr. Xie. The research also included contributions from Prof. Hideo Matsuzaki from the same division at the University of Fukui and Assistant Professor Koshi Murata from the Division of Brain Structures and Function, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Fukui, Japan. The article is published online on September 15, 2026 in the journal Neuropsychopharmacology.
To investigate this, the researchers created knockout mice in which NSF was removed specifically from D2R-expressing cells (neurons). They then studied the animals' brain development, dopamine levels, and behavior. The team also tested whether drugs that affect dopamine signaling could reduce the behavioral changes seen in the modified mice.
The loss of NSF affected the developing brain, resulting in fewer dopamine D2R-expressing cells, increased early developmental cell death, and a smaller striatum. They also had markedly lower dopamine levels in this brain region. Together, these findings suggest that NSF helps maintain dopamine-related cells and supports normal development and dopamine function.
The brain changes were accompanied by ADHD-like behaviors. The knockout mice were more hyperactive than control mice and showed more impulsive-like behavior in a test that measured how quickly they jumped from an elevated platform. By the end of the seven-minute test, 86% of the experimental group mice had jumped, compared with 31% of the control group mice.
The researchers then explored whether these behaviors could be reduced by changing dopamine signaling. Methylphenidate, a medicine commonly used to treat ADHD, did not significantly reduce hyperactivity when given alone to the modified mice. However, when it was given together with quinpirole, a drug that activates D2R, the mice became less hyperactive and showed less impulsive-like behavior. During the seven-minute test, the proportion of knockout mice that jumped fell from 78% without treatment to 11% after the two drugs were given together.
"This is basic research and will not immediately lead to a new treatment. However, it provides important clues for understanding how dopaminergic dysfunction may contribute to ADHD. In the future, these findings may help develop new therapeutic strategies targeting D2R function and striatal dopamine signaling, especially for treatment-resistant ADHD," concludes Dr. Xie.
Reference
Title of original paper: Deletion of N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor in dopamine D2 receptor-expressing cells impairs striatal development and dopaminergic function and induces ADHD-like behaviors in mice
Journal: Neuropsychopharmacology
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-026-02526-8
About University of Fukui, Japan
The University of Fukui is a preeminent research institution with robust undergraduate and graduate schools focusing on education, medical and science, engineering, and global and community studies. The university conducts cutting-edge research and strives to nurture human resources capable of contributing to society on the local, national, and global level.
Website: https://www.u-fukui.ac.jp/eng/
About Assistant Professor Min-Jue Xie from University of Fukui, Japan
Dr. Min-Jue Xie is an Assistant Professor at the Research Centre for Child Mental Development, University of Fukui, Japan, with more than 35 years of medical and research experience. Dr. Xie studied medicine at Shanghai Second Medical University and pursued further studies at Kanazawa University. Dr. Xie's research focuses on brain development, neuronal function, synaptic plasticity, dopamine signaling, and neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders, including ADHD and autism. Dr. Xie has contributed to 42 research articles, with 1,465 citations and an h-index of 19.
Funding information
This work was supported, in part, by KAKENHI grants from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan (16H05373 to H.M. for study design; 24K02131 to Y.F. for data analysis and 21K06752 to M.-J.X. for data collection and analysis). The decision to publish was also supported by internal funding from the University of Fukui. Open Access funding provided by University of Fukui.
